Ancient+History

} }'History' comes from the Greek word, historic, which means 'learning by inquiry'.
 * Topic 1 Introduction to Archaeological **

}‘Archaeology' also comes from a Greek word meaning `the discussion of ancient things'. A more complete meaning is a study of humanity's past by means of the physical objects that people have left behind. These physical objects are called artefacts.

}An artefact is any object that has been made or constructed by humans. These can include the remains of buildings, tombs, jewellery, pottery, weapons and household objects.

}A source is anything that has survived from the past. It can be either written or archaeological. The source is the raw material that the historian uses to ask questions of the past.

}Evidence is the information that tends to prove or disprove a conclusion—to establish the fact or point question. A source does not become evidence until it is used.

}A primary source comes from the same time as the person or event being studied. If it is an artefact, it is an object that was made or constructed in the period being studied. In the case of a written source, it is something that was written or reported at that time.

}A secondary source is something written about or copied from the past by people living in another time—for example, a secondary school textbook, a movie, a historical novel or a replica of a Greek pot.

__ Archaeological sources can be both physical and written. __

}Examples of physical evidence are:

}buildings

}monuments

}Artefacts

}Ancient written sources can be classified as follows.

}Literary sources include the writings of people in the ancient world such as historians, biographers, play­wrights/poets, orators, letter writers. Literary sources can also be lists of transactions, record keeping, king lists, law codes and decrees.

}Epigraphic sources are those that are inscribed on clay, metal, stone or papyrus. They may even include graffiti.

}Numismatic evidence is provided by coins that contain images of key figures, religious symbols, legends, special events and sometimes even a date. These can be especially valuable for dating purposes.

u ** DIGGING UP THE PAST. **  u Archaelogical Methods u __The field of archeology is a scientific field that studies past cultures to give modern people information about how their ancestors lived and interacted in the distant past.__ u Archaeologists spend quite a bit of time excavating and analyzing materials found underground at dig sites. u Digs are found throughout the world, and the work done there can be both time-consuming and laborious. When archaeologists make finds about early cultures, however, it can be very exciting. New “finds” add to the knowledge researchers have about the way people lived in the past. u __Archaeology is continually being influenced by technology.__ u __From the simple use of shovels it now uses the most sophisticated satellite, radar and remote sensing technology.__ u __In recent time forensic science is providing information from DNA.__ u Where to Dig? u //“…most important sites are not found by archaeologists at all…instead they are found accidentally by farmers, quarrymen, construction workers, or aerial photographers; underwater sites are discovered by fishermen and divers; caves have been found by potholers, children and even dogs.”// u Paul Bahn u __Human activities that involve digging into the ground and removal of soil have led to many chance finds. Such activities include ploughing, construction, particularly airfields in World War 2, means include quarrying and dredging__ u Some sites have also been found as a result of drop in sea levels and soil erosion u __Other means include the use of ancient literature, maps, legends and folklore.__ u The Dead Sea Scrolls discovered by accident by two boys u Terracotta Army discovered in 1974 by farmers digging a well u Ground Surveys u The simplest survey technique is surface survey__. It involves combing an area, usually on foot but sometimes with the use of mechanized transport, to search for features or artifacts visible on the surface.__ Surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are completely buried under earth, or overgrown with vegetation. Surface survey may also include mini-excavation techniques such as augers, corers, and shovel test pits. u Soil resistivity mapping u Soil resistivity mapping __A soil resistivity meter evaluates how well the soil conducts electricity by measuring its moisture content.__ Heavily compacted soil, such as a buried road or the floor of a building, holds less moisture and is less conductive, while ground that has been tampered with, such as trenches or ditches, have high moisture content and readily conduct electricity. In either case, __archeologists use soil resistivity mapping to pinpoint disturbed areas beneath the surface.__ u Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) u Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) Ranging in size from small handheld models that one places against the ground to larger ones that one drags across a site, __GPR devices use low-power radio waves to detect changes in density underground__. u Unlike traditional radar, which broadcasts into the air and uses a parabolic dish to focus the returned waves, __GPR uses a small but sensitive receiver placed directly against the ground.__ u Depending on their needs, archeologists can adjust radio frequencies upward for shallow sites or downward for deeper areas, though GPR devices produce the greatest definition when reading depths of three feet or less u Magnetometer u Magnetometer The handheld magnetometer is loosely related to metal detectors used to sweep beaches in search of lost coins and jewelry. As one moves it over the ground__, the mag generates a small electronic signal that measures the intensity of the magnetic field below the surface.__ Where there is a break in the bedrock—at the entrance of a rock-cut tomb, for example—the magnetometer records a dip in the magnetic field. __Archeologists often use mags in conjunction with Global Positioning System receivers (which use satellites to compute precise positions) to create detailed maps of the subsurface.__ u Aerial Surveys u __Aerial survey is conducted using cameras attached to airplanes, balloons, or even kites and is useful for quick mapping of large or complex sites.__ Aerial photographs are used to document the status of the archaeological dig. A__erial survey also employs infrared, ground-penetrating radar wavelengths, and thermography.__ u The importance of Crop Marks for Archaeology u Some crops (e.g. wheat and oats) are particularly sensitive to soil water content and show marks clearly but others (e.g. grass and potatoes) are insensitive and rarely show them. Additionally, well-drained soils (such as sands and chalky soils) show these marks better than poorly drained clays. u A Legacy of War u World War One brought the discovery that photographs behind enemy lines taken from airplanes could be of great value in warfare. Stonehenge 1908 from a balloon //“Today aerial survey is the single most important tool for the discovery of archaeological sites in this country,”// said Pete Horne, Head of Aerial Survey and Investigation at English Heritage u An excellent source of remote sensing information for archaeologists is archival aerial photography, the older the better. U.S. Army Air Corps aerial reconnaissance photos of the region dating from September 1944 were acquired from the U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency using a Freedom of Information Act Request (FOIA). u. Over 200 black and white vertical aerial photos of a scale of approximately 1:40,000 were acquired and have been manually and digitally analyzed to search for archaeological sites, roads, etc.  u Imaging radar u Using radar across a broad spectrum of frequencies, imaging radar can see through the ground to depths of up to ten feet, penetrating sand, dirt, and even heavy vegetation; a buried section of China's Great Wall was discovered this way. Space shuttles or satellites outfitted with this equipment can generate imaging radar maps by day or night and even in poor weather conditions. u Infrared aerial photography u Buried structures can disturb vegetation above them by blocking plants' growth or their access to groundwater. While the archeologist's naked eye cannot perceive these subtle abnormalities, infrared film can. By recording the heat signature that plants give off, and by detecting places where that signature has been interfered with, infrared photographs can hint at promising areas for excavation. Experts take such u Sidescan Sonar u Sidescan Sonar used to discover the wreck of the Tudor Ship ,The Mary Rose in 1967. The ship was brought to the surface in 1982

u NEW ARCHAEOLOGY __In recent years, remote-sensing technologies have become as commonplace in khakis, spades, and brushes. Such tools for virtual excavation generate rapid results and are non-destructive, highly accurate, and usually cost-effective.__ u //“Today aerial survey is the single most important tool for the discovery of archaeological sites in this country,”// said Pete Horne, Head of Aerial Survey and Investigation at English Heritage u UNDER WATER ARCHAEOLOGY u __Regional survey in underwater archaeology uses geophysical or remote sensing devices such as marine magnetometer, side-scan sonar, or sub-bottom sona__r. u The Actium Project u //In the summers of 1993 and 1994, a team of American and Greek researchers scanned the ocean depths where, 20 centuries before, Mark Antony and Cleopatra fought Octavian for control of the Mediterranean world. Using computer, video and remote-sensing technology, Project members hoped to locate on the sea floor actual physical evidence from the battle. Our expectations were based on various threads of evidence that suggest 60 or more bronze warship rams plummeted to the bottom during the course of the battle on September 2, 31 B.C.// u Wreck of the Mary Rose raised to the surface on October 11 1982 u Team uses sub, robot to recover ancient shipwreck ruins u 1997

WASHINGTON (CNN) -- Using a nuclear submarine, a robot and a high-tech mapping system, a U.S. Navy-led team has discovered an unprecedented treasure trove of shipwrecks in the deep waters of the Mediterranean u Internet maps reveal Roman villa 2007 u Google Earth offers satellite images of many parts of the world**Latest technology proved an unexpected aid to unearthing the past when an Italian man decided to look at internet maps of his home.** u Computer programmer Luca Mori found the remains of an ancient Roman villa when he browsed Google Earth maps showing satellite images of his local area. u His curiosity was sparked by unusual shading by his home in Sorbolo, Parma. u He contacted local archaeologists who investigated and confirmed it was once the location of a Roman villa. u "At first I thought it was a stain on the photograph," 47-year-old Mr Mori explained. "But when I zoomed in, I saw that there was something under the earth." u The satellite images threw up a dark oval shape more than 500m (1,640ft) long, as well as shaded rectangular shapes nearby u Putting it all together for Australian soldiers August 2007 u ELIZABETH JACKSON: An expert panel in Canberra was recently given a report into the discovery of a mass grave containing the bodies of 160 Australian soldiers killed in World War I. The Battle of Fromelles in July 1916 in northern France was one of the bloodiest battles of the Great War. In a day of fierce fighting, over 5,500 Australians were killed - they were wounded or taken prisoner. Now archaeologists at the University of Glasgow have found several mass graves containing the remains of 399 Commonwealth soldiers, including 160 from the Australian 5th Division.

TONY POLLARD: We used a background of quite in-depth historical research, which included a quite substantial archive of allied wartime aerial photographs taken between 1916, just days after the Battle of Fromelles, going right the way up to 1918, and these show the eight pits that the Germans were ordered to dig by their commanders, the C, to actually accommodate the bodies from the Battle of Fromelles, both British and Australian.

=ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATING TECHNIQUES=

“new archaeology” excavated urban centres layer by layer // “The important thing is that the archaeologist must know his dates and how to use them;recorded dates where they are valid and unwritten dates where geological or physical or chemical or botanical science can win them from the earth.” // RELATIVE /ABSOLUTE //__ RELATIVE TECHNIQUES __// Stratigraphy and Seriation Typology and Cross Dating Fluorine Obsidian Hydration Pollen Analyses //__ ABSOLUTE TECHNIQUES __// Radio Carbon Dating Potassium Argon Dating Thermoluminescence Electron Spin Resonance Dendrochronology

__RELATIVE DATING TECHNIQUES__ One of the most fundamental principles of archaeology is the //__ Law of Superposition __//. The __ law states that strata that are younger will be deposited on top of strata that are older, given normal conditions of deposition. __

__ STRATIGRAPHY __ __ study of strata, or layers. __ __ stratigraphy refers to the application of the Law of Superposition __ to soil and geological strata containing archaeological materials in order to determine the relative ages of layers. In addition, stratigraphy can tell us much about the processes affecting the deposition of soils, and the condition of sites and artifacts

__SERIATION__ __ This technique places assemblages of artefacts into relative order. __ Petrie used sequence dating to work back from the earliest historical phases of Egypt into pre-dynastic Neolithic times, using groups of contemporary artefacts deposited together at a single time in graves. Seriation was developed in the USA to place in order finds from strata or other kinds of assemblages such as potsherds collected from the surface of sites. Petrie’s system of Seriation or Sequence Dating was developed in 1899. The system emphasises the relation of one find to another rather than an exact date of manufacture. Nine hundred graves were selected from almost 4000 excavated

__CROSS DATING__ __ Cross-dating is a technique used to compare consistencies in stratigraphy between parts of a site or different sites, and objects or strata with a known relative chronology. __

__FLUORINE DATING__ Fluorine can be used as a relative dating technique. __ Over time, more and more fluorides are accumulated. __ The rate varies depending on the specific condition in the soil of the area and increases with age. __ Fluorine dating is chiefly of value in determining whether bone implements or human skeletal remains found in association with other bones were buried at the same time. __ It was fluorine dating that was instrumental in the debunking of Piltdown Man.

__POTASSIUM ARGON DATING__ Potassium-Argon Dating Potassium-Argon dating is the only viable technique for dating very old archaeological materials. Geologists have used this method to date rocks as much as 4 billion years old. It is based on the fact that some of the radioactive isotope of Potassium, Potassium-40 (K-40) ,decays to the gas Argon as Argon-40 (Ar-40). __By comparing the proportion of K-40 to Ar-40 in a sample of volcanic rock, and knowing the decay rate of K-40, the date that the rock formed can be determined.__ __Weakness of Relative Dating__ The potential flaws in relative dating are obvious. __Simply assuming that an object is older because it was found at a lower depth in the record is only subjective science.__ There are many instances of deep holes being dug for rubbish pits or to locate well water that protrude into the record of older strata injecting more modern material as they are filled in over time. Landslides and slips can completely change the topography of an entire site burying what was once on top by that which is much older, hence reversing the strata layers

__ABSOLUTE DATING__ Since 1950 there has been a transformation in the dating techniques of archaeologists. __Absolute dating is highly dependant on laboratory analysis__. There are a number of techniques that have come to archaeology through the nuclear research efforts during WW2. __RADIO CARBON DATING__ __ Radiocarbon dating uses the biological assumption that all living things absorb carbon, both ordinary carbon, C12, and radioactiv __ e carbon, C14, into their living tissue. At the moment of death the C14 begins to decay at a rate that scientists already know from other experiments. The missing amount can then determine how long it took to be lost and therefore date the object to a precise period. __can only be used on organic matter.__ LIMITATIONS OF C14 DATING __ Size of the archaeological sample is important __. Larger samples are better, because purification and distillation remove some matter. __ Care must be taken __ in collecting and packing samples to avoid contamination by more recent carbon. __ not very accurate for fairly recent deposits __ Fourth, __the ratio of C-14 to C-12 in the atmosphere is not constant.__ In general, __single dates should not be trusted__. Whenever possible multiple samples should be collected and dated from associated stra

__DENDROCHRONOLOGY__ __ Dendrochronology is Tree-Ring Dating. __ the growth rings on certain species of trees reflect variations in seasonal and annual rainfall. Trees from the same species, growing in the same area or environment will be exposed to the same conditions, and hence their growth rings will match at the point where their lifecycles overlap. __Weaknesses in Dendrochronolgy__ In some areas of the world, particularly in the tropics, the species available do not have sufficiently distinct seasonal patterns that they can be used. Where the right species are available, the wood must be well enough preserved that the rings are readable. In addition, there must be at least 30 intact rings on any one sample. There also must be an existing master strip for that area and species. There is an absolute limit on how far back in the past we can date things with tree rings. Although bristle cone pine trees can live to 9,000 years, this is a very rare phenomenon. As we try to push our matching of archaeological specimens beyond the range for which we have good control data, our confidence in the derived dates diminishes

__THERMOLUMINESCENCE__ __ Artefacts that are made from crystalline materials can be dated using luminescence analysis. Crystalline minerals when subjected to intense heat will burn with differing colours of flame. __ Mostly used to date pottery the method is very effective but costly. The greatest problem with dating an object from antiquity is that nearly every absolute dating process requires the destruction of at least a piece of the object in conducting the analysis. There are relatively few dating laboratories and having an artefact dated can be an expensive exercise especially if the artefact isnot of great value itself. Limitations to Thermoluminescence Thermoluminescence dating is in its developmental stages. Except for doing simple authenticity tests of art objects, thermoluminescence dating is not generally accurate enough for archaeological standards. There are many factors which have to be taken into account and each of these factors has its own random error. This, combined with poorly understood measurement errors, make the accuracy of thermoluminescence dating only about 15% accurate for a single sample and 7 to 10% accurate for a suite of samples in a single context. Thermoluminescence dating is used for rocks, minerals and pottery. It dates items between the years 300-10,000B.P.

Other

Uranium Disequilibrium Uranium-Thorium dating is an absolute dating technique which uses the properties of the radio-active half-life of Uranium-238 and Thorium-230. Electron Spin Resonance Electron Spin Resonance Dating falls into the group of dating methods that uses radiation exposure to date many materials found at archaeological sites. It is also known as a Radiometric Dating Method. This method works by using radiation to cause electrons to separate from the atoms. These electrons then become trapped in the crystal lattice of minerals. This changes the magnetic field of the material at a rate that is predictable, allowing it to be used to date an item. It can be used to date when mineralization, sedimentation, or the last heating of minerals took place. It is often used to date quartz from meteorite strikes, and places where earthquake activity has taken place

=Cities of Vesuvius. =

Stages of the Eruption. Watch the following:

Pompeii: the last day

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b1uZc9Y_oZY

GEOGRAPHY?

FACTORS OF LOCATION- A CURSE AND A BLESSING? .

The Oldest Image of Vesuvius This painting of Vesuvius was discovered in 1879 on a wall in the Casa del Centenario, one of the largest houses in Pompeii. Bacchus is pictured standing before the mountain; at the time Vesuvius was covered in vineyards.

Geographical context NATURAL RESOURCES marine environment supported a fish & shellfish industry & production of a fermented fish sauce called Garum Salt, used for preserving food was produced by the salt pans in shallow pools Woodland provided building materials & sand was mixed with lime to make cement Fertile soils allowed the cultivation of grapevines & olives. Loamy sand allowed good drainage and an ideal ph for crop growing. Minerals like phosphorous produced abundant flowering of crops Sheep & goats were raised for meat, milk, skins & wool Local clay was used for containers

Mediterranean marine environment

Ancient Writers on Campania Felix

( blessed country) ‘Campania is the fairest of all regions. . . it flowers twice a year. Nowhere is the soil more fertile. . . here are the vine-clad mountains. . . Vesuvius is the fairest of them all’ ~ Florus, ‘The Heracleian Fortress. . . admirably catches the breeze. . . a healthful place to live.’ ~ Strabo

‘a fertile region so blessed with pleasant scenery that it was manifestly the work of nature in a happy mood. . . wonderful and life sustaining and healthy atmosphere that lasts all year through, embracing a climate so mild, plains so fertile, hills so sunny, woodlands so secure & groves so shady. . . different kinds of forest, breezes, an abundance of corn, vines & olives, splendid fleeces, fine necked bulls, numerous lakes, rich sources of rivers, seas and harbours, lands are open to commerce. . . even the land runs equally out into the sea as if to assist mankind.’ ~ Pliny the Elder, Natural history.

= The Eruption. (watch video and follow the stages on the handout. Read the Pliny accounts in the textbook). =

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n The most famous and significant literary source in regards to the eruption of Vesuvius were the letters of Pliny the Younger to the historian Tacitius. According to Haraldur Sigurdsson, ‘in the field of science Pliny’s letter..will remain classics as the first eyewitness report of an explosive volcanic eruption so powerful that is it repeated on our planet only about once in a thousand years.’ =====

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n ‘Now, as the ships drew near, ashes were falling hotter and thicker, Now pumice and blackened stones, charred and cracked by fire…Now it was daylight elsewhere but here it was a night blacker and denser than any other night.’ Pliny. =====

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n Gauis Plinius Secundus, or Pliny the Elder, had a successful military career as well as political, therefore he was appointed by emperor Titus as commander of the fleet at Misenum. He was a well educated man and had an interest in natural events. Pliny was an ancient writer who composed his work called //Natural History//, which covered many topics and was the only author to include a table of contents within his work. The value in his work ‘lies in the fact that he records what was believed at the time.’ This major work was so vast that it was comprised in 37 books, and covered topics such as the fresh produce of the region, the gardens of Pompeii, medicinal plants and more. =====

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n The strength of this source is that Pliny was a powerful and experienced man who is noted for his interest in nature, and sought out much of his information first hand. =====


 * EARNING A LIVING IN POMPEII - Economy and Occupation. **

//“// The location of Pompeii as a port and central to the fertile Campanian hinterland and Italian penninsula ensured its vibrant and cosmopolitan economic activity in primary secondary and tertiary activity. The excavation of up to 600 shops indicates the scale of such economic activity ” PRODUCERS  The traditional view was that the purpose of Pompeian economic activity was the production of material wealth for consumption by the local population.  Current debate centres around the possibility of some export and import trade, particularly with wine and olives  Production, however, rarely went beyond the scale of the household.  The production of staple food, bread, wine, grapes and fish sauce, combined with processing industries in cloth manufacture, metallurgy, wheelwrights and potters served to create self sufficiency  The cost of transport, dependence on local resources and slavery all served to limit expansion  Pompeii’s position, near the sea and the navigable river Sarno did encourage some trade.

 The economy of Pompeii encompassed Primary, Secondary and Tertiary levels of Production  Major industries were Wine, Olives, Wool and Textiles  Smaller industries were fish sauce, pottery, perfume, Soap, Metal work

 PRIMARY PRODUCTION; Wine Production

Table Olives and Olive Oil

 Garum- Fish Sauce Garum was a extremely popular as a food additive throughout the Roman world. Because the the garum vats would have smelled particularly unpleasant, scholars think that garum production did not take place within the walls but instead at Pompeii’s port facility on the Sarno River Inscriptions painted on pottery vessels reveal the name Aulus Umbricius Scaurus, who ran a number of workshops producing Garum. Around 30% of inscriptions on fish sauce containers in Campania relate to his workshops

 SECONDARY PRODUCTION  Most primary production took place in the rural hinterland although Jashemski’s studies using pollen and seed analyses indicate some market garden activities close to the amphitheatre.  Secondary production occurred in small to medium workshops, generally using slave labour  “The workshops at Pompeii did manufacture goods that were exported; …..initially exchanged at the port of Puteoli, the port of Rome, from where they were taken to the markets of the capital. Traders in Rome and Puteoli would have distributed the products throughout the Empire.”

 Wool and Textile Industry  The scale of textile production is disputed with some claiming it as a major activity, arguing that the number of fulleries and dye shops far exceeded demand.  Of the fulleries found, 4 are large. The Fullery of Stephanus contained several rooms with a clothes press, basins for washing, foot basins for treading ( using animal or human urin since no soap to remove grease or dirt existed) and 3 large basins for rinsing. There was also a large balcony overlooking the atrium from which finished clothes could be dried.  Near the entrance, a skeleton was found with gold, silver and bronze coins to the value of 1,089 sesterces, thought to represent the days takings.

 Bread production; From grain to table  BASALT MILLS. Large bakeries with several mills were located some distance from the Forum, generally where more land was available.

Small stones from the basalt were often incorporated in the flour. Estelle Lazer found that the dental remains showed evidence of wear from bread.  Arts and Crafts

depicted in wall paintings

 Metal Work, Bronze, Iron, Copper, Silver and Gold

 TERTIARY INDUSTRY   The number of bars, taverns and brothels in the archaeological remains, suggests a buoyant service industry.  Hotels with dining rooms and guest accommodation have been found at both sites  Large numbers of people gained employment as staff at baths, masseurs, barbers, carriers, and muleteers  In the narrow streets to the east of the Forum as many as nine buildings have been identified as brothels. To date none have been excavated at Herculaneum

 RETAIL  CAUPONA- Tavern or Inn, with or without rooms for rent.At the Inn of Asselina there were tables and chairs, hot wine was served. The kettle for heating wine was found with the lid still on. The names of the 3 women who worked there were written on the walls.( Maria, Smyrna, Aegle- slaves have only one name)  THERMOPOLIA- Small hot food and drink bars which did not provide seating are scattered around the city. They had distinctive benches with round serving holes on the top.

 Argument centres around whether the rooms at the back or upstairs served as brothels  Prostitutes, although low in social status were free to wander the streets. Others had their services advertised.

 MARKET DAY  Food and items were sold, direct from workshops, general shops, inside and outside the Macellum, the meat and fish market.  But not all vendors required permanent shops. Wall paintings from the Villa of Julia Felix depicts stalls in the Forum and graffiti advertises market days held at Pompeii, Nuceria, Nola, Cumae and Puteoli at different times of the month

PLANS AND STREETSCAPES OF POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM

Pompeii was a fortified town with eight gates that closed every evening. Fiorelli had discovered that an irregular network of streets dominated the oldest precincts. Subsequent expansion of the city followed the standard Hellenistic pattern, a strict grid of elongated blocks known by the Romans as insulae, or islands. Five or six main routes crisscrossed the city. The Via Stabiana was a principal thoroughfare, accommodating overland trade with cities to the north and almost constantly noisy with the rumble of carts. Vehicles travelling southbound would cross the Via di Nola and the Via dell’Abbondanza, both about eight metres wide .Centuries of hard use had worn ruts as deep as twenty five centimetres in the paving stones of these broad boulevards. In other areas of the city, vehicular traffic was restricted and many side streets were for pedestrians only. The narrow streets of Herculaneum had much less traffic and were not rutted by wheeled traffic. In addition to the absence of wheel ruts, there were no stepping stones across its avenues, suggesting they were cleaner and better drained. The western end of the Via dell’Abbondanza led into the main forum, a rectangular space measuring about 150 metres long by 45 metres wide. The Forum in both Pompeii and Herculaneum functioned as the heart of the city, although the Forum at Herculaneum is still buried under the town of Resina, now known as Ercolono. The Forum was a meeting place, a place for business transactions, a place for debates and religious performances. Places of worship were integral elements in the Forum complex. On the western boundary was the Temple of Apollo and on the northern side an imposing temple dedicated to Jupiter. The Forum also had key secular buildings, the most impressive being the huge Basilica, the place of judicial power. In Herculaneum there were two important roads running east to west, Decumanus Maximus and Decumanus Inferior. These were crisscrossed by three routes running north to south, Cardo III, Cardo IV and Cardo V.

THE ECONOMY

The economy of Pompeii owed much to two factors, the fertility of the Campanian soil and the town’s position as the harbour for the surrounding region. Wall paintings indicate that a wide range of fruits and vegetables were grown in the region. In these, as in grain the city would have been self-sufficient. The two most significant agricultural products were undoubtedly wine and olive oil. Both of these were widely exported and they must have contributed greatly to the wealth of the rich landed families. The one exception to this predominantly agricultural economy was the production of woollen goods. The wool was produced in the highlands of Samnium and Lucania. The widow Eumachia built the large courtyard building in the Forum to serve as the headquarters of the trade association of wool traders and fullers. Election posters that were found refer to many other trade associations such as transport, dealers in poultry, fruit and vegetables, fishermen, bakers and goldsmiths. Pottery was another flourishing local industry, both for domestic use and to supply the containers in which wine, oil, garum and other local products could be stored and shipped. Many small one roomed workshops are found throughout Pompeii. In the Mensa Ponderaria, weights and measures were examined to ensure they were uniform with the official Roman units or weight checking equipment. Commercial establishments in Herculaneum seem to have been small scale, perhaps sized to meet local demands. Fullers were well represented, though not nearly as extensively as in Pompeii. With the exception of net making businesses that catered to fishermen, other trades in the town paralleled those in Pompeii. Wall paintings, inscription, graffiti, mosaics, frescoes, various artefacts and studies of excavation sites, provide an insight into the various industries and occupations at both Pompeii and Herculaneum.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE (refer to handout on patron client relationships)

In both Pompeii and Herculaneum, there was a diverse mix of social classes including wealthy landowners, merchants, artisans and slaves. Society was based on a patriarchal system. The socio-political structure was determined by the familia, which included all relatives of the oldest male of the clan, as well as free born or freed former slaves, who depended on the head of the familia. The head of the familia is the paterfamilias who has almost unlimited power (patria potestas) over its members. Closely related to the concept of familia was the patronage system where a person of modest wealth and influence, placed himself under the protection of a powerful patron (patronus), thus becoming his client (cliens). It was the duty of the patron to assist his clients in legal and business matters. In return they gave him political and public support. Clients would come to the patron’s house to greet him and publicly demonstrate their loyalty to him. This is known as the salutatio ritual. Women in Pompeii and Herculaneum while they had no political rights, appeared to have more freedom than women in Rome and actively participated in the public, religious and business life. Many women were extremely wealthy and influential. Slaves in both Pompeii and Herculaneum may have made up forty percent of the population. Slaves could be bought and sold and were part of a persons property. Freedom could be bought of granted through the patronage of their owner.

POLITICAL LIFE

At the time of the so called Social Wars 91-88 BC, Pompeii and Herculaneum were made municipiums, provincial towns dependent on Rome, and their inhabitants became Roman citizens. Around 80BC, Latin becomes the official language and the town constitutions Romanized. Such constitutions tended to follow a broadly uniform pattern, with relatively minor variations to meet local conditions. The government of Pompeii, the executive body, consisted of two duumvir, and two aediles, annually elected by the comitium the people’s assembly, of which all male citizens were members. The annual election of these four magistrates was the comitium’s only function, and as numerous slogans painted on house facades indicate, the elections created a great deal of interest. Of the four magistrates, the two aediles were in charge of public buildings, including temples, the two duumviri were in charge of justice. Every five years, the duumviri were also responsible for organizing the census of all citizens and of revising the ordo decurionum, the legislative council (or senate). This body had 80-100 members, among them former magistrates and other citizens appointed by the duumviri. They had to be free born citizens and wealthy enough to be able to spend considerable sums on the community. Some professions such as gladiators, actors and innkeepers were excluded from membership.

EVERYDAY LIFE AND LEISURE ACTIVITIES The citizens of Pompeii and Herculaneum had access to a wide range of food. While the poor had to content themselves largely with porridges of wheat, split peas or broad beans, the rich could indulge themselves with more lavish fare. At dinners and banquets men and women reclined on broad, sloping couches arranged around a low, central table. A dinner of three courses could go on for hours. A banquet could have several kinds of birds such as doves, partridges, pheasants, peacocks and ostriches. Fish could also be served. After the meat course came fruit. This was followed by varieties of wine. The people of Pompeii and Herculaneum did not neglect their leisure activities. There was an amphitheatre, exercise grounds, public baths and two theatres. The city also had a multitude of taverns, thermopoliums, inns and brothels. Many people would have spent afternoons at the public baths. In Pompeii people had access to a number of baths. The oldest of these was the Stabian baths, with facilities for both men and women. The Forum Baths were smaller than the Stabian Baths. In Herculaneum patrons could use the Central Baths, while the Suburban Baths were frequented only by the wealthy classes. Patrons of the baths could bathe, exercise, have massages, socialize, and in winter could keep warm. Many people also used the Pompeii’s largest exercise ground, the Great Palaestra at the city’s eastern end. Patrons could involve themselves in a number of activities such as weightlifting, discus, javelin throwing and boxing. They could also watch cockfighting. East of the Great Palaestra was the Amphitheatre which had seating capacity for 20,000 people. Admission to the upper tiers was free. Gladiatorial performances would take place with gladiators specializing in different modes of conflict. The bareheaded retarius carried a fisherman’s trident, a dagger and a net. The helmeted thrax bore a short sword or curved dagger and a round shield. The equites fought on horseback. Gladiators might also be pitted against wild boars or bears. . Next to gladiatorial combat, the citizens of Pompeii seemed to enjoy attending the theatres to watch plays, musical performances, poetry recitals and other forms of entertainment. The larger of the two theatres could hold 5000 spectators, while the smaller Odeon Theatre was covered and could hold 1200 patrons. A Herculaneum, the theatre had a capacity of 2500, half that of Pompeii’s larger theatre, but significant considering the size of the town’s population of about 5000.

PUBLIC BUILDINGS (refer to teacher handout on this subject) (Architecture and influences) __The Forum__ was the centre of life in both Pompeii and Herculaneum, and was the location of many of the more important buildings. Pompeii’s Forum is an outstanding example of its kind, both in its architecture and in its grandiose nature. The Basilica was pre-Roman, a magnificent building, monumental in its proportions and serving as the seat of the tribunal and the centre of the city’s life. Temples in Pompeii were based on the great Hellenistic models. They consist of a cella, where the statue of the god was housed, enclosed in a larger structure usually rectangular in shape. Doric, Ionic and Corinthian columns were used. The Temple of Apollo is an integral part of the Forum area. The building shows Italic and Greek architectural features and has a rectangular plan with the perimeter surrounded by 48 columns. The Temple of Jupiter (Capitolium), dating back to the Samnite era, was the centre of religious life in Pompeii and was situated on the northern side of the Forum. The theatres in both Pompeii and Herculaneum show the features of Greek models in that they exploit the natural inclination of the terrain. The Great Theatre at Pompeii was a place where performances of comedies and tragedies were held. It had a semi-circular cavea, and a stage (scena) where the actors performed. The Odeon or Small Theatre was a covered theatre used for mime, musical performances, poetry recitals and theatrical events less suited to a large audience. The Amphitheatre in Pompeii is an elliptical structure in a depression in the ground and backing onto embankments. It consists of a large cavea, around which are the steps, divided into sections, which cover the entire perimeter of the construction. The seats in the lower central area were reserved for dignitaries. It was capable of holding up to 12,000 spectators and was equipped with a cover which was stretched over the complex. The Large Palaestra was built at the time of Augustus, when the Small Palaestra dating back to the Samnite period, had become insufficient for the city’s needs. It became the centre in which the Collegium Juvenum, the young men of the city, exercised. It consisted of a vast square area, surrounded by walls, inside which is a portico with 118 columns along three sides and a pool in the centre. The Palaestra had efficient sanitary systems. The Palaestra in Herculaneum was about 100 metres by 80 metres, with a cross shaped swimming pool. Spectators watched competitions from a portico running around three sides of the games area, while dignitaries watched from a special box.

PRIVATE BUILDINGS Exhumed from layers of pumice and ash, houses in Pompeii and Herculaneum suggest what life was like for the people of these towns. In Pompeii there were no separate residential or industrial areas and homes, shops, taverns and workshops were situated alongside each other. In Herculaneum there was a distinct upper class quarter, an elegant waterfront terrace of mansions arranged on different levels. Houses in both towns ranged from simple workmen’s houses to the elegant residences of wealthy merchants and the nobility.

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While the houses bordered on each other, they nevertheless guaranteed the inhabitants privacy and peace. Tall, generally windowless walls kept out the noise of the street. With openings of various sizes in the tiled roofs, even the smallest townhouses had good light. From the street entrance there was an atrium which led into the tablinum, or principal reception room, then to a sunlit peristyle and a colonnaded garden. Along the longer sides of the atrium could be small bedrooms (cubicula). A dining room (triclinium), so named from the arrangement of the three couches, could be found alongside the tablinum. A shrine (lararium) would often be in the atrium. Terracotta spouts would channel rainwater from the inward sloping roof gables into the shallow impluvium in the centre of the floor. Furnishings within the houses would have included little more than wooden couches, cupboards, small tables and screens. Shutters, doors and curtains closed rooms against the cold. Tallow candles or oil lamps would be used at night. Charcoal braziers would be used for warmth. Colourful murals and intricate mosaics would enhance the rooms. A house excavated in Pompeii in 1895, the House of the Vettii, is one of the best known and admired houses. It was the property of the Vettii brothers, who were not of noble birth, but rich merchants. While the house is somewhat ostentatious, every object found during the excavation was left in place and it gives a good indication of the manner in which a rich citizen lived. The House of the Mosaic Atrium exemplifies the gracious domestic style enjoyed by Herculaneum’s wealthy householders. Laid out to take maximum advantage of the sea breezes and vistas, it was effectively two houses in one. Besides the original atrium house, a later extension incorporated a colonnaded garden with a fountain, a glass enclosed portico, a solarium or sun deck with a small shaded room at each end, where residents could relax during the heat of the day. On many of the street frontages, rooms of houses had been converted into single room shops (tabernae) opening directly onto the street. Along the Via dell’Abbondanza in Pompeii there were numerous workshops joined to the houses of their owners.