Geography+Year+9

IMPACTS OF CHANGING CLIMATES AND SEA LEVELS

__ Australia is an ancient landmass __.

Over many millions of years Australia has undergone many changes mountain ranges and inland seas have come and gone. As mountain ranges eroded, ** sediments ** many kilometres thick were laid down. These sedimentary rocks were then subjected to folding, faulting and uplifting. Over time, the forces of ** weathering ** and erosion have worn these down again.

Erosion acts more quickly on softer rocks, forming valleys and bays. Harder rocks remain as mountains,hills and coastal headlands.

Because it is located in the centre of a tectonic plate, rather than at the edge, Australia has no active volcanoes on its mainland and has very littletectonic lift from below. It therefore remains relatively quiet in terms of volcanoes and major earthquakes.

This means its raised landforms, such as mountains, have been exposed to weathering forces longer than those of some other continents. Hence they are more rounded or worn down. In fact, Australia is the lowest and flattest of all the continents.


 * ·Australia is the continent with the **** lowest average elevation. The average **** altitude of the Australian landmass is **
 * only 300 metres. North America has an **** average elevation of 790 metres. **
 * · Only 0.5 per cent of the Australian continent **** is above 1000 metres. **

** 6/3/2012 **
__PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS __ __THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA UNIQUE __

__2.1 MAJOR LANDFORMS AND DRAINAGE BASINS __

Forces that work on the surface of Australia and give our landforms their present appearance are weathering, mass movement, erosionand deposition.


 * Weathering ** is the breakdown of bare rock by water and temperature changes at the Earth's surface.

appearance of local landforms. For example, the steep sides of parts of the Blue Mountains are formed by a combination of weathering and mass movement.
 * Mass movement ** The gravitational movement of rock and soil downslope is called. This contributes to the

Water erosion by rivers and streams has been responsible for the carving of many valleys in Australia's higher areas. Small parts of the Australian Alps and Tasmania have been eroded by glaciers during the last Ice Age. Drier parts of Australia have experienced some wind erosion.
 * Erosion ** is the wearing away of soil and rock by natural elements, such as water, ice and wind.

they have been carrying. Many broad coastal and low-lying inland valleys have been created by stream deposition.These areas are called flood plains. Wind deposition has created many sand dunes along beaches and in desert areas.
 * Deposition ** : When streams, glaciers and winds slow down, they deposit or `drop' the load of rock, soil and particles

__**Homework**__

Observe the map of Australia's major landform regions on page 20 of the text

(a) What are the four major landform regions?

(b) Which region is:

(i) the largest? (ii) the smallest?

(c) State the landform region in which each of the

following is located (refer to an atlas if necessary):

i) Sydney

(ii) Alice Springs

(iii) Canberra

(iv) Kalgoorlie

(v) Cairn

(vi) Lake Eyre.

4. Name Australia's largest drainage basin.



__ Case Study: Murray Darling Basin __

- Covers one million square kms - 20 major rivers. - 40 % of Australia’s total agriculture. - 75% of irrigated land in Australia. - Problems: Salination Destruction of wetlands

__ Topographic Maps. __

__Watch this video__

[]

__Contour lines__ – lines that join all points together of the same height.

__Contour intervals__ – height between contour intervals.

Contour maps also show natural and human features sometimes these are explained in a __key or legend.__

__Grid Lines-__ these are overlaid over a map to provide a way to give numerical grid references. Horizontally east – west and vertically north – south. __Note__: Eastings are always given first.

__Area reference__ - give the grid square where the feature is located. Eg. AR8640

__Grid reference__ – six figure number that shows the exact point GR643146.

Do exercises on page 25 of Geo 2.

=Contour Patterns.=

Copy p 26 from Geo 2 into your notes.

Examine each feature closely.

Goto page 27 and try to find similar features.

Watch []

go through the exercises on Katherine Gorge pp. 28-29.

Three main types of maps are synoptic, radar and satellite. As we have seen satellite give a visual presentation, radar identifies rainfall potential and synoptic gives a graphical interpretation of a range of evidence.  Air pressure of the atmosphere or weight of the air. - -measured from various weather stations. - expressed in hectopascals (hPa). - isobars are line joining points of equal pressure. - high pressure systems are called anticyclones and are areas of sinking air usually more than 1013 hPa. - low pressure systems of less than 1013 hPa if very low they are called cyclones. - A line drawn on a map to show where two different air masses meet. - Can be cold or warm fronts. - Winds greatly impact on temperature. - High pressure systems generally bring northerly winds and warm temperatures. - Low pressure systems generally bring east/southerly winds and cooler temperatures. [] <span style="font-family: 'Book Antiqua',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Copy table on p. 35.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Book Antiqua',serif; font-size: 22pt;">Weather Maps. **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Book Antiqua',serif; font-size: 18pt;">Synoptic Charts. **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Book Antiqua',serif; font-size: 16pt;">Pressure Systems. **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Book Antiqua',serif; font-size: 16pt;">Air Masses and Fronts. **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Book Antiqua',serif; font-size: 16pt;">Wind and Temperature. **

<span style="font-family: 'Book Antiqua',serif; font-size: 12pt;">See You Tube NASA clips on how to predict the weather.

[] []

** Australian Flora and Fauna. ** [] Australia has been an isolated continent for 50 million years. Over that time the plants and animals have evolved separately from those in other parts of the world. As a result many of them are unique to Australia. Endemic species and biodiversity Australia has a very high proportion of endemic species— species that are found nowhere else in the world. As many as 85.per cent of the flowering plants, 82 per cent of the mammals and 89 per cent of the reptiles are believed to be endemic to Australia. The continent also contains areas with great species biodiversity, for example the Great Barrier Reef and tropical rainforests of Queensland and the South-west Botanical Province of Western Australia.

Fire, drought and salt Many of the plants and animals that have evolved in Australia have unique adaptations to the hostile environment. There are three characteristics that are common in Australian plants which distinguish them as being typically Australian. These are their ability to withstand fire, drought and salt.

Marsupials and monotremes Two of the most distinctive groups of animals found in Australia are the monotremes, or egg-laying mammals and the marsupials, or pouched mammals. There are just three monotremes—the duck-billed platypus and two species of echidna. The marsupials includes koalas as well as many species of kangaroo, wallaby and possum. There is no real difference between kangaroos and wallabies. They belong to the same family but wallabies are generally smaller than kangaroos and prefer more rugged terrain, whereas the larger kangaroos are found on grassy plains. They all have front-opening pouches in which they suckle their young, or joeys. These marsupials are herbivores but this is not true of all marsupials. Some, like the Tasmanian devil, are carnivorous. One of the most unusual animals found in Australia is the duck-billed platypus. Platypuses are found in the rivers and lakes of eastern Australia and are shy, solitary creatures. They spend around 12 hours each day swimming and searching for food and the remainder in burrows that they dig into the banks close to water level. []

Example for assignment

__<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 25px;">Flora and Fauna Case Studies (Willandra and Daintree) __

Willandra Lakes region

The Willandra Lakes region provides a unique record

of the evolution of the Australian landscape. It is

located in the Murray–Darling Basin in south-west

New South Wales and covers an area of 240 square

kilometres (see 1.42). Sediments in the dry salt lakes

and associated crescent-shaped dunes provide valuable

evidence of past climates and human occupation.

The vegetation of the Willandra Lakes region is mallee

shrubland, typical of Australia’s semi-arid zone. ‘Mallee’

is the Aboriginal word for the multi-stemmed eucalypts

that grow from lignotubers, which are starchy swellings

that contain dormant buds.

Goto Google Earth and search on Mallee []

Plant adaptations

The plants of the mallee community are all highly

adapted to the harsh environment and provide habitats for

a wide range of animals.

The mallee eucalypts are well adapted to fire as they are

able to produce new growth from their lignotubers and also

from epicormic shoots just below the bark on the trunk and

branches. This allows the trees to regenerate quickly after fire.

Mallee fauna

There is a wide diversity of animals, reptiles, birds and

insects living in the mallee. Animals include the red and

grey kangaroo, and the short-beaked echidna. Bird species

vary in size from wedge-tailed eagles to fairy wrens, and

reptiles include the Mallee dragon and Gould’s goanna.

Like the plants they have all adapted to their environment

in different ways.

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 90%;">A __lignotuber__ is a starchy swelling of the [|root crown] possessed by some plants as a protection against destruction of the plant stem by fire. The crown contains [|buds] from which new stems may sprout, and a sufficient store of nutrients to support a period of growth in the absence of [|photosynthesis]. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 90%;">Plants possessing lignotubers include [|Eucalyptus marginata] (Jarrah), most [|mallees], and many [|Banksia] species. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 90%;">Many plants with lignotubers grow in a shrubby habit, but with multiple stems arising from the lignotuber. The term lignotuberous shrub is widely used to describe this habit. Lignotubers survive more than other plants. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 90%;">__Epicormic shoots__ bud out from the bark of trunks and stems and can be quite fragile if knocked whilst they are young (first few years). Once they grow to a larger size they can grow a stronger bark around them and take on a form like normal branches. Goto [|http://australianbushlife.com.au/epicormic-shoots-after-bushfire-eucalypts]

__<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 210%;">The Daintree __

Daintree has one of the wettest and warmest climates in Australia. Over 400 species of trees have been identifed in the Daintree and a substantial number are found only within its borders. There are many other ferns, orchids, palms, mosses and lichens. [] In the lowland rainforest areas of the Daintree, sometimes referred to as jungle, along the rivers and creeks there is a large variety of animals and plants. Two of the best known are crocodiles and mangroves.

Only one type of crocodile inhabits coastal northeastern Queensland: the dangerous estuarine crocodile. It is the world's largest crocodile. These crocodiles inhabit the tidal rivers and creeks but can occur kilometres upstream in fresh water. They take a variety of prey such as crabs, ®sh, birds, wallabies and domestic dogs, and humans on rare occasions. Larger crocodiles are scavengers and can walk several hundred metres from water and drag back a dead animal. They are cannibals and eat many smaller crocodiles. ||~ Mangroves Mangrove forests are dense communities of plants, consisting of different species of trees, creepers, vines, lichen, algae and sea grasses. They live in the saline waterlogged soils where conditions ¯uctuate between high and low tide. They form an almost impenetrable maze of root systems along the shores of the waterways. Mangrove ecosystems have important functions in the rainforest: · They are vital spawning grounds for ®sh, crabs and prawns. · They support a large variety of specialist life forms such as birds, mammals and insects. · Flying foxes or fruit bats commonly feed on blossoms and establish camps. · They protect the coastline from strong winds and erosion. · They trap sediments that would otherwise be washed into the sea, thus protecting many fragile marine habitats. · The mangroves of the Daintree are an essential part of the habitat of estuarine crocodiles that feed on the rich sources of food within the waterways. || =Great site !!=
 * ~ Crocodiles

[|http://www.australianwildlife.com.au]

Natural hazards affecting Australian

communities. __Introduction Statement.__ Natural hazards affect all areas of the Australian continent. Some hazards strike quickly, without warning, while other types of natural hazard occur over long periods of time and their occurrence is predictable. Regardless of the speed of onset of the hazard, their impacts can be devastating. Geographers study natural hazards so that they can try to predict where and when they are likely to occur in the hope that communities can be better prepared to deal with these extreme forces of nature. **__2.1 Natural Hazards in Australia.__** Types of natural hazards Natural hazards can be separated into two main categories: • those related to weather and climatic factors—drought, flood, heatwaves, bushfires, strong winds, storms, tropical cyclones and tornadoes • those related to movements in the Earth’s crust— landslides, earth tremors, earthquakes and tsunamis.

Impacts of natural hazards Cyclone tracy [] __Over 85 per cent of Australia’s population lives on or near__ __the coast. The population is then further concentrated__ __into capital cities and other major urban agglomerations__ __located on the coast.__ __When natural hazards strike in__ __these densely populated areas, the impacts they have on__ __communities are obvious and costly.__ They become welldocumented and covered by the media because of the effects on a large number of people. __The effects that natural hazards have in the more sparsely__ __settled areas of Australia are often less noticeable.__ __Droughts occur over many years and affect large areas of__ __the continent. The impact of drought is felt particularly in__ __rural communities, costing farmers thousands of dollars__ __through the loss of crops and livestock. Farmers have less__ __money to spend locally, further adding to the impact on__ __the community.__

= __**2.2 Landslides, earthquakes and tsunamis.**__ = Australian Landslides. Landslides involve the movement of a mass of rock or sections of the earth's crust under the Force of gravity. This can be caused by rain, earthquakes or erosion. Human activity can also cause them to happen.

Human actions cause almost half of the landslides in Australia.

Construction of roads and railways on hillsides, building works can weaken hillsides and make them more vulnerable during heavy rainfall. Mining activities also contribute to the hazard.

• Duration—Landslides vary from incredibly slow where material moves at centimetres per year to very rapid where materials move at metres per second. It is the rapid events that present the greatest hazard.

• Predictability—While there are general signs of land movement, generally it is difficult to predict destructive landslides.

• Control measures—Building codes are enforced and seismological studies undertaken to assess risks.

= Australian Earthquakes. =

[] The cause of earthquakes in Australia is intra-plate tension where movements occur along cracks and faults in the Earth’s crust. • Type—They are shallow, occurring to a depth of 20 kilometres. • Duration—They can last anywhere from seconds to minutes. • Measurement—Force is measured on the Richter scale • Frequency and risk—It is estimated that in Australia an earthquake of Richter scale magnitude 5.5 or greater occurs on average every 15 months. Earthquakes exceeding magnitude 7 occur somewhere in Australia approximately every 100 years. • Destructive potential—Depends on the intensity of the earthquake and the area where it strikes.

[] Newcastle earthquake demonstrated that Australian communities need to consider this threat. Lessons from the Newcastle earthquake have resulted in improved building codes and practices, and closer monitoring of seismic activity. Since 1994, all buildings in Australia are required to be constructed to resist earthquakes.

The tsunami threat

Tsunami’ is a Japanese word, tsu meaning ‘harbour’ and nami meaning ‘wave’.

Formation.

[]

When an earthquake, landslide or volcano occurs under the sea it can trigger a tsunami.

The movement of the ocean bottom displaces water on the surface, forming a

tsunami which moves outwards in all directions from the centre of the disturbance.

Risk to Australia The risk to Australia from tsunami is relatively low although certain areas face a higher risk due to their proximity to major earthquake zones that lie under the ocean.



Watch the following.

Simulation. [] Footage [] Japan [] = = = Floods =

Tropical cyclones cause widespread destruction in Australia and other parts of the world, where they are known as hurricanes or typhoons. Of the 10 tropical cyclones that form in the Australian region each year, six are likely to cross the coastline. [] [] []
 * Cyclones **

How do tropical cyclones develop? Tropical cyclones form over the northern areas of Australia in the months from November to April. They generally affect areas north of Perth along the coasts of Australia and the Northern Territory, most of the Queensland coastline and occasionally the far north coast of New South Wales. Tropical cyclones are intense low-pressure systems that form over warm oceans. Their development is reliant on a number of key geographical processes that occur in the tropical regions of the world. • They form in the band between 5˚ and 22˚ N and S of the Equator over oceans with a water temperature greater than 26.5˚C. • Warm moist air over these oceans rises, causing lowpressure systems to develop. • The rising air forms clouds, which release heat, causing the air to rise further, leading to a tropical storm.

The birth of a tropical cyclone If the air pressure in the upper atmosphere is relatively high it will limit the altitude that the warm, moist air can rise to. This high pressure causes the rising air to spiral outwards. Air from the Earth’s surface rushes into the low-pressure system to replace the air as it rises and spirals outwards in the upper atmosphere, causing the low-pressure system to intensify and the spiralling winds to get stronger. When this happens, a tropical cyclone has developed. The end of the tropical cyclone Condensation occuring in the atmosphere from warm,moist air is the key to the energy that sustains tropical cyclones. They can persist for many days may follow quite erratic paths. Once they travel over land or move beyond the tropics to cooler oceans they tend to dissipate or lose their energy as the supply of warm, moist air is no longer present. When this happens they are downgraded to tropical storms, but can still cause problems as they travel inland where they are frequentlywith flooding. Categorising tropical cyclones = Depending on the atmospheric conditions, tropical cyclones can be very destructive. Australia classifies = these hazards according to their intensity. There are fivecategories of tropical cyclone that hit Australia.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Severe Storms [] [] [] On average, severe storms kill between five and 10 people per year in Australia, mainly due to lightning strikes. Thunderstorms can occur at any time in any part of Australia. Characteristics of severe storms A severe storm is characterised by: • hail with a diameter of 2 centimetres or more • wind gusts of 90 kilometres per hour or more • flash flooding • tornados. Geographical processes that cause severe storms The atmospheric conditions that cause severe storms typically develop when warm humid air is pushed upward into the atmosphere by converging surface winds. As the air rises the moisture condenses releasing heat energy called latent heat into the air. It causes the air to become more buoyant allowing it to rise further into the atmosphere, up to a height of 12 kilometres. The water freezes forming ice crystals and potentially hail.



Profiling a severe storm. • Duration—Hours to minutes. • Destructive potential—Severe storms cause more insurance damage than any other natural hazard in Australia. Their impacts are often fairly localised, affecting suburbs rather than entire cities. • Predictability—With careful study of synoptic charts and atmospheric conditions it is possible to determine where and when severe storms may occur. The Bureau of Meteorology issues severe storm warnings based on the information it has available. Tornados [] Thunderstorms []

Bushfires.

Bushfire seasons in Australia Due to the climatic range of the Australian continent, the bushfire threat occurs at different times of the year. Latitude influences temperature and climate. These two elements shape the fire season in Australia. In the north, the dry season makes fires common in winter and spring, the southern latitudes fires are linked to hot temperatures and summer weather patterns. How do bushfires grow and spread? The most common natural cause of a fire in the open is lightning strike. Human causes include poorly attended campfires, hazard reduction burns, sparks from machinery and barbeques, and the act of arson—where a person deliberately starts a fire. Fires require three key elements to grow into bushfires and spread. fuel, oxygen and heat • Fuel source—Australia’s natural vegetation of dry sclerophyll forest and grasslands is particularly prone to fire. Eucalyptus trees shed their leaves throughout the year and the leaf litter provides a fuel source for wildfire. The oil in eucalyptus leaves located in the tree crown enables fires to spread rapidly in the right weather conditions. Dry grasslands are another fuel source. • Supply of oxygen—The movement of oxygen in the atmosphere is stimulated by strong winds. Winds blow oxygen into the fire and cause it to spread. The fire front moves in the direction the wind is blowing Dry winds that originate from the centre of Australia bring hot and dry conditions with them. These winds add to fire intensity. Wind changes can also act to turn small fires into huge fire fronts. • Heat—Sunshine and high temperatures dry out the fuel source making it susceptible to fire. A succession of extremely hot, dry days typical of Australian summers over the south-eastern area of the continent only adds to the fire risk.

Canberra bushfires [] [] Victorian bushfires []

Fire-fighting techniques The two main methods of controlling bushfires in Australia actually involve lighting fires.

• Hazard reduction—Lighting low-intensity fires in the cooler months of the year during favourable climatic conditions will reduce the threat of bushfires. This method is similar to the way Aboriginal people used fire in the Australian environment. • Back burning—This is the method used to contain and extinguish bushfires. It involves lighting fires in unburnt areas so that the fire front burns into the areas already burnt. These fires are usually lit at night when environmental conditions are more favourable. They are generally small and are able to retard a bigger fire.

Drought.

Frequency, duration and risk of drought

Severe drought is when rainfall is in the lowest 5 per cent

of all known records for at least three months. Severe drought:

• occurs every four to 38 years

• affects a part of Australia once every 18 years on average

• normally lasts between one and eight years

• is more likely to affect central inland areas, which have the greatest risk

• can occur anywhere due to the variability of Australia’s rainfall.

Geographical processes that contribute to drought The processes causing drought are mainly atmospheric and hydrological. • Australia’s location—Australia’s subtropical latitude means that the inland and central regions typically experience high atmospheric pressure. • El Niño–Southern Oscillation—Many of the droughts that affect eastern and northern Australia are caused by the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle This is a regular fluctuation in the global climate and it usually happens every few years.

El Niño is the name that is given to the phenomenon of unusually warm ocean currents in the Pacific Ocean off the west coast of South America, and unusually cool ocean currents off the east coast of Australia. Normal climatic conditions In most years the surface of the Pacific Ocean adjacent to Peru is cold. The Humboldt current brings cold water from Antarctica northward along the west coast of South America. Solar energy heats this water as it spreads westwards at the Equator. This results in the eastern Pacific being 3–8°C colder than the western Pacific near Australia. The air moving over warm ocean waters in the western Pacific also becomes warm and moist. Warm air rises, creating areas of low atmospheric pressure and rain on the east coast of Australia. The warm, moist air is pushed eastwards over cooler oceans and it begins to cool and sink over the eastern Pacific Ocean bringing high air pressure and dry conditions to South America. El Niño Around Christmas time every year the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Peru warms up. Every three to six years the water becomes even warmer than usual, which causes flooding rain in South America. This intense warming is called El Niño, Spanish for ‘the little boy’ or ‘Christ-child’, because of its arrival around Christmas. During El Niño the usually strong westerly trade winds over the Pacific Ocean weaken. The pool of warm water that is usually in the western Pacific near Australia moves east, and the ocean along the east coast of Australia cools. The weak trade winds do not pick up as much moisture as normal due to this cool temperature and lower evaporation rates. Less than average rainfall occurs in eastern Australia.

Southern Oscillation Index The Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) measures the difference in air pressure between Darwin in the western Pacific and Tahiti in the central Pacific, and compares it to normal differences in air pressure. The SOI is expressed as a number usually between +30 and –30 with 0 being average. When the SOI is positive, normal or above average, rainfall may occur in eastern Australia. If the value of the SOI is negative it usually means that there are El Niño conditions and there will be below average rainfall.

Australia's Population

The study of human population characteristics and

patterns is called demography.

Demographic characteristics of human populations are usually based on statistics and include such elements as size, growth rates, ethnic composition, age structure, gender and spatial distribution.


 * Australia’s population size **

[]

There are two main ways of measuring the population.

Every five years the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS)

conducts a census of the Australian population, which

includes all the people in Australia at that time. It also

provides the benchmark on which estimates are made of

the population in the years between censuses, called the

estimated resident population (ERP). These estimates are

made four times a year using census data, as well as data

on natural increase and overseas migration.

On 4 December 2003 the Australian population officially

reached 20 million, and by March 2006 the number had

increased to 20.5 million. This shows that the Australian

population is growing at a rate of one person about

every two minutes or about 1.3 per cent annually.

Migration - Road to Multiculturalism

Since the 1970s Australia has adopted a policy of

multiculturalism and people from all parts of the world have been able to become residents and citizens. Today around one-quarter of Australia’s population was born overseas, the majority (52 per cent) are from European countries.

Pattern of recent migration

The United Kingdom and New Zealand are

still the largest sources of migrants to Australia but their contribution has decreased relative to other countries.

Fewer migrants are also coming from Italy, Greece and the Netherlands, while more are coming from India, China and Africa.

Types of migrants to Australia

• Assisted or historical migrants —From the 1830s

until the end of the twentieth century some

immigrants had their transport subsidised or

paid for by the government under the assisted

immigration schemes.

• Family migrants —Sponsored by a family member,

partner or fiancée who lives in Australia as a

citizen or permanent resident. They are selected

on the basis of their family relationships in

Australia.

• Business migrants —People who work in business

and move to Australia can be granted a business

skills visa, which is valid for four years. If they

continue to work in the business sector they may

be granted permanent residency after this time.

• Skilled migrants —People who have skills or

outstanding abilities that may contribute to the

Australian economy are targeted. They receive

a skilled working visa, which is valid for three

years, after which time they can apply for

permanency.

• Student migrants —Many people come to Australia

to study at schools and universities because of

Australia’s excellent educational standards and

reputation. Temporary study visas are granted

to almost 40 000 people from overseas entering

universities in Australia every year.

• Refugees and asylum-seekers —Many migrants

arrive in Australia under the humanitarian

program as they flee from political and economic

problems in their home countries. Almost 15 000

visas are approved each year in this program.

Australia has accepted refugees and asylumseekers

since the 1940s. Refugees have arrived

in Australia fleeing conflicts in Vietnam, Bosnia,

Afghanistan, Iraq and now Africa. [|https://docs.google.com/open?id=0B8qbecMGux9WM3dLZHp5TE1xeU] []

Community Communities are groups of people who have something in common. The ‘something’ that is shared may be space or area, culture or religion, goals or values, interests or occupations, under various levels of government, or a  mixture of several of these. There are two basic types of community—those based on shared space and those based on social organisation. Communities based on shared space Shared space refers to people living in and/or using the same geographical area. Examples of communities based on shared space include: • a street • a park, • a school, • a small country town, • a suburb • a local government area • a city. • a state or territory • a country Communities based on shared social organisation Shared social organisation refers to the interactions, interests, beliefs, values and ideals of people. Examples include: • sporting clubs • professional groups, • farming groups, • political parties, • religions, • interest groups • cultural background • language groups, • groups linked by technology Differences. Within larger communities there are smaller and different communities. For example, within the wider Australian community there is the migrant community. Within the migrant community there are people of Italian, Greek, Chinese, British and Indian backgrounds who are different to each other. Within each of these communities there are first-generation migrants who may have different ideas and identities to the second and third generations.

__<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 210%;">Case Study Tweed __

Short Historical Timeline of the Tweed Valley. Cedar cutters - pioneer frontier settlers, mainly in camps close the river. Early Pastoral - Mainly along the Rouse River in the western section of the valley. Selectors - After the Robertson land act was passed, large pastoral leases were divided and sold to small holders. This enticed large numbers of farmers into the Tweed area. By the end of the nineteenth century a large community existed and the township of Murwillumbah flourished. __ The Twentieth Century. __ The introduction of the railway and the entry of rural companies CSR and Norco underwrote the growth of the sugar and dairy industry. These industries were the engines of growth in the region in the early twentieth century. They provided a great deal of employment to people in the processing industry. After WWI the government's 'Soldier Settlement' scheme brought new small holders (farmers) to the region and crops such as bananas intensified, especially after the government introduced a tariff on foreign imports. After WWII population began to develop on the coastal fringe and cheaper cars increased mobility for people within the region. Post-war migrants from places such as Italy and India moved to farm in this area, which changed the racial and cultural make-up of the area. In the 1970s the area became popular for people from the counter-culture who left large cities to pursue an alternative existence. These people sought a 'return to Eden' utopia and became active in the promotion of environmental awareness and sustainable living. They experimented with rural diversity in products such as tropical fruits and organic produce. However, their impact on the social fabric of the area was the most profound. In the 1980s, population growth on the Gold Coast and the Tweed Coast exploded bringing new people to the area who were primarily suburban and often commuters. This included many retirees who were attracted to the sub-tropical climate and the affordable house prices. This increased the demand for 'lifestyle' farmers on small acreages and many farmers sub-divided 100 and 200 acre grazing and 'banana' land. In the 1990 the government deregulated the dairy industry. This decimated the producers and killed what had always been a marginally profitable enterprise in this region. This has left a huge number of vacant farms and disgruntled farmers who are unable to sub-divide or find a viable replacement for dairying on the difficult clay soils in the Tweed. Today the area remains caught between its rural heritage and the culture of the new 'settlers' who are attracted to the area for its natural beauty, but were raised in an urban setting. The service sector now dominates the rural as the major employer and the Gold Coast and Brisbane provide those willing to commute with a range of employment opportunities.

Tweed History - Caldera by the Sea []

Gold Coast History []

Indigenous Communities Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islanders are Australia’s Indigenous inhabitants. An Aboriginal person is defined as a person who identifies themselves as Aboriginal and is recognised by their community as Aboriginal. Torres Strait Islanders are descendants or traditional inhabitants of the Torres Strait Islands. Population size and growth I n 2001 the Indigenous population was 458 500, 2.4 per cent of Australia’s population. The Indigenous population is growing more rapidly than the rest of Australia with an average growth rate of 2 per cent per annum, almost double the non-Indigenous growth rate. The preliminary estimate of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population at the time of the 2011 Census was 662,000 people. Population distribution Accurate records of the Indigenous population before European settlement do not exist but estimates range from 300 000 to over one million. The arrival of the Europeans had devastating impacts on the Indigenous population, through the introduction of diseases, dispossession of land, and disruption to traditions and society. The Indigenous population is more widely spread than the rest of the Australian population, who are concentrated on the east and west coasts. Indigenous people are more likely to live in remote and regional areas. The Northern Territory has the largest proportion of Indigenous Australians in its population. Aboriginal communities in the Northern Territory Pasted from <[]>



Demographic characteristics of Australia’s Indigenous

community

It is recognised that the health, living conditions, educational

standards and employment opportunities of Indigenous

Australians are generally much poorer than those of non-

Indigenous Australians.

Alice Springs in crisis as violence and crime grows

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Aboriginal missions and binge drinking

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Aboriginal Life in Australia - Tropic of Capricorn - BBC travel

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Age and sex structure

The preliminary Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population at 30 June 2011 had a younger age structure than the non-Indigenous population, with a larger proportion of young people and a smaller proportion of older people (see graph below). The much younger age structure of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population is largely a product of relatively high levels of fertility and mortality compared with the non-Indigenous population.

Preliminary Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non-Indigenous populations - 30 June 2011



**Issues in Indigenous communities** Some Indigenous communities suffer disadvantage compared to the rest of Australia. • Education—The proportion of Indigenous people who attended university in 2001 was less than half the rate of the non-Indigenous population. Indigenous students are less likely to complete years 11 and 12 than non- Indigenous students. • Health—Indigenous adults are more than twice as likely to smoke than the rest of the population. The prevalence of diabetes, renal failure and heart disease is also much greater in the Indigenous population, and nearly 70 per cent of all Indigenous communities are located more than 100 kilometres from a hospital, even though Aboriginal people are almost twice as likely to be hospitalised as non-Indigenous people. Improving Indigenous health in Australia Pasted from <[]> Case Study Trachoma is an eye disease caused by bacteria and it is the leading cause of blindness in the world. It is particularly prevalent in developing countries, but it also occurs in some Indigenous communities in the Northern Territory, South Australia and Western Australia. There are an estimated 5000 Indigenous children affected by this disease, and it is preventable as long as there is clean water for washing and that people live hygienically. Some Indigenous communities also have significant problems with alcoholism, petrol sniffing and other substance abuse. This is influenced by a range of cultural and socio-economic factors and can lead to  reduced life expectancy, crime, cognitive and mobility impairments and an increase in the prevalence of HIV/ AIDS in Indigenous communities compared to non- Indigenous communities. • Unemployment—The unemployment rate for Indigenous Australians is four times higher (20 per cent) than the overall rate of around 5 per cent for all Australians.
 * Drugs and crime

Indigenous community

Individuals, groups and government have responded

to the issues in Indigenous communities in a variety of

ways. Strategies continue to be implemented in attempts

to address the inequalities.

• Media—Indigenous issues are often reported in media

reports, many of which draw attention to the problems

affecting Indigenous communities.

• Government funding—The Australian Government,

together with state, territory and local governments,

fund housing, education, health and employment

programs, such as the Community Development

Employment Projects (CDEP), in an attempt to raise

the living standards of Indigenous communities.

• Land rights and native title—Some national parks

have been returned to Aboriginal traditional owners

through native title Some Aboriginal groups have set

up tourist and education enterprises within

these areas.


 * NGOs—Non-government organisations like the

Fred Hollows Foundation and the Telstra Foundation

fund mobile diabetes units help to promote health issues

in Indigenous communities.

• Individuals—Noel Pearson works with Cape York

Indigenous groups and promotes the breaking down

of ‘passive welfare dependency’ among the Cape York

Aboriginal people by giving back their rights to take

responsibility for their lives. He sees employment

opportunities as a way of addressing some of

the issues.

• Individual communities—Jabiru, Alice Springs and

Brewarrina have become or have discussed becoming

dry towns where alcohol can only be bought on certain

premises and cannot be taken away or consumed in

public places.